Mara - Revision history

TeraS at 17:35, 20 October 2014

2014-10-20T17:35:16Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 10:35, 20 October 2014
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	[[Category:Demon Names]]		[[Category:Demon Names]]
	[[Category:~~Definitions~~]]		[[Category:Deities, Spirits, and Mythic Beings]]
	''For other uses of the word [[Succubus]], see [[Succubus (disambiguation)]].''		''For other uses of the word [[Succubus]], see [[Succubus (disambiguation)]].''
	[[File:John Henry Fuseli - The Nightmare.JPG\|thumb\|300px\|''The Nightmare'', by Henry Fuseli]]		[[File:John Henry Fuseli - The Nightmare.JPG\|thumb\|300px\|''The Nightmare'', by Henry Fuseli]]

TeraS at 19:07, 8 October 2014

2014-10-08T19:07:45Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:07, 8 October 2014
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	The mare is attested as early as in the Norse ''Ynglinga saga'' from the 13th century.<ref>''Ynglinga saga'', chapter 13 (and quoted stanza from ''Ynglingatal''), in Hødnebø and Magerøy (1979), p. 12</ref> Here, King Vanlandi Sveigðisson of Uppsala lost his life to a nightmare (''mara'') conjured by the Finnish sorceress Huld or Hulda, hired by the king's abandoned wife Drífa. The king had broken his promise to return within three years, and after ten years had elapsed the wife engaged the sorceress to either lure the king back to her, or failing that, to assassinate him. Vanlandi had scarcely gone to sleep when he complained that the nightmare "rode him;" when the men held the king's head the it "trod on his legs" on the point of breaking, and when the retinue then "seized his feet" the creature fatally "pressed down on his head." <ref>{{cite book\|author=Snorri Sturluson\|others=Hollander, Lee M. (tr.)\|title=Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway\|publisher=University of Texas Press\|year=2010\|origyear=1964\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=71U7xXIBbUgC&pg=PA16\|isbn=0292786964}}</ref>		The mare is attested as early as in the Norse ''Ynglinga saga'' from the 13th century.<ref>''Ynglinga saga'', chapter 13 (and quoted stanza from ''Ynglingatal''), in Hødnebø and Magerøy (1979), p. 12</ref> Here, King Vanlandi Sveigðisson of Uppsala lost his life to a nightmare (''mara'') conjured by the Finnish sorceress Huld or Hulda, hired by the king's abandoned wife Drífa. The king had broken his promise to return within three years, and after ten years had elapsed the wife engaged the sorceress to either lure the king back to her, or failing that, to assassinate him. Vanlandi had scarcely gone to sleep when he complained that the nightmare "rode him;" when the men held the king's head the it "trod on his legs" on the point of breaking, and when the retinue then "seized his feet" the creature fatally "pressed down on his head." <ref>{{cite book\|author=Snorri Sturluson\|others=Hollander, Lee M. (tr.)\|title=Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway\|publisher=University of Texas Press\|year=2010\|origyear=1964\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=71U7xXIBbUgC&pg=PA16\|isbn=0292786964}}</ref>

	According to the ''Vatnsdæla saga'', Thorkel Silver ({{lang\|is\|Þorkell Silfri}}) has a dream about riding a red horse that barely touched ground, which he interpreted as a positive omen, but his wife disagreed, explaining that a mare signified a man's fetch (''fylgja''), and that the red color boded bloodiness. This association of the nightmare with fetch is thought to be of late origin, an interpolation in the text dating to circa 1300, with the text exhibiting a "confounding of the words ''marr'' and ''mara''."<ref name="kelchner">~~{{cite book\|ref={{SfnRef\|~~Kelchner~~\|1935}}\|last=Kelchner\|first=~~Georgia Dunham~~\|title=~~Dreams in Old Norse Literature and their Affinities in Folklore~~\|publisher=~~Cambridge University Press~~\|year=2013\|origyear=1935\|url=http://books~~.~~google~~.co.~~jp/books?hl=ja&lr=&id=eXMoAAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA20\|pages=20–22\|isbn=~~1107620228}}</ref>		According to the ''Vatnsdæla saga'', Thorkel Silver ({{lang\|is\|Þorkell Silfri}}) has a dream about riding a red horse that barely touched ground, which he interpreted as a positive omen, but his wife disagreed, explaining that a mare signified a man's fetch (''fylgja''), and that the red color boded bloodiness. This association of the nightmare with fetch is thought to be of late origin, an interpolation in the text dating to circa 1300, with the text exhibiting a "confounding of the words ''marr'' and ''mara''."<ref name="kelchner">Kelchner, Georgia Dunham (2013) [1935]. Dreams in Old Norse Literature and their Affinities in Folklore. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–22. ISBN 1107620228.</ref>

	Another possible example is the account in the ''Eyrbyggja saga'' of the sorceress Geirrid accused of assuming the shape of a "night-rider" or "ride-by-night" (''marlíðendr'' or ''kveldriða'') and causing serious trampling bruises on Gunnlaug Thorbjornsson. The ''marlíðendr'' mentioned here has been equated to the ''mara'' by commentators.<ref>Morris, Eiríkr; Magnússon (1892), The Story of the Ere-dwellers (Eyrbyggja Saga), B. Quaritch, pp. 29–, 274, 348</ref><ref>Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni (1890), The Viking Age: The Early History, Manners, and Customs of the ancestors of the English-speaking Nations 1, Scribner's Sons, p. 433</ref><ref>Ármann Jakobsson (2009), "The Fearless Vampire Killers: A Note about the Icelandic Draugr and Demonic Contamination in Grettis Saga", Folklore, Volume 120, Issue 3: 307–316 doi:10.1080/00155870903219771</ref>		Another possible example is the account in the ''Eyrbyggja saga'' of the sorceress Geirrid accused of assuming the shape of a "night-rider" or "ride-by-night" (''marlíðendr'' or ''kveldriða'') and causing serious trampling bruises on Gunnlaug Thorbjornsson. The ''marlíðendr'' mentioned here has been equated to the ''mara'' by commentators.<ref>Morris, Eiríkr; Magnússon (1892), The Story of the Ere-dwellers (Eyrbyggja Saga), B. Quaritch, pp. 29–, 274, 348</ref><ref>Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni (1890), The Viking Age: The Early History, Manners, and Customs of the ancestors of the English-speaking Nations 1, Scribner's Sons, p. 433</ref><ref>Ármann Jakobsson (2009), "The Fearless Vampire Killers: A Note about the Icelandic Draugr and Demonic Contamination in Grettis Saga", Folklore, Volume 120, Issue 3: 307–316 doi:10.1080/00155870903219771</ref>

TeraS at 20:17, 12 September 2014

2014-09-12T20:17:58Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 13:17, 12 September 2014
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	== By Region ==		== By Region ==
	===Scandinavia===		===Scandinavia===
	The mare is attested as early as in the Norse ''Ynglinga saga'' from the 13th century.<ref>''Ynglinga saga'', chapter 13 (and quoted stanza from ''Ynglingatal''), in Hødnebø and Magerøy (1979), p. 12</ref> Here, King Vanlandi Sveigðisson of Uppsala lost his life to a nightmare (''mara'') conjured by the Finnish sorceress Huld or Hulda, hired by the king's abandoned wife Drífa. The king had broken his promise to return within three years, and after ten years had elapsed the wife engaged the sorceress to either lure the king back to her, or failing that, to assassinate him. Vanlandi had scarcely gone to sleep when he complained that the nightmare "rode him;" when the men held the king's head the it "trod on his legs" on the point of breaking, and when the retinue then "seized his feet" the creature fatally "pressed down on his head." <ref>{{cite book~~\|ref={{SfnRef\|Hollander\|1964}}~~\|author=Snorri Sturluson\|others=Hollander, Lee M. (tr.)\|title=Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway\|publisher=University of Texas Press\|year=2010\|origyear=1964\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=71U7xXIBbUgC&pg=PA16\|isbn=0292786964}}</ref>		The mare is attested as early as in the Norse ''Ynglinga saga'' from the 13th century.<ref>''Ynglinga saga'', chapter 13 (and quoted stanza from ''Ynglingatal''), in Hødnebø and Magerøy (1979), p. 12</ref> Here, King Vanlandi Sveigðisson of Uppsala lost his life to a nightmare (''mara'') conjured by the Finnish sorceress Huld or Hulda, hired by the king's abandoned wife Drífa. The king had broken his promise to return within three years, and after ten years had elapsed the wife engaged the sorceress to either lure the king back to her, or failing that, to assassinate him. Vanlandi had scarcely gone to sleep when he complained that the nightmare "rode him;" when the men held the king's head the it "trod on his legs" on the point of breaking, and when the retinue then "seized his feet" the creature fatally "pressed down on his head." <ref>{{cite book\|author=Snorri Sturluson\|others=Hollander, Lee M. (tr.)\|title=Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway\|publisher=University of Texas Press\|year=2010\|origyear=1964\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=71U7xXIBbUgC&pg=PA16\|isbn=0292786964}}</ref>

	According to the ''Vatnsdæla saga'', Thorkel Silver ({{lang\|is\|Þorkell Silfri}}) has a dream about riding a red horse that barely touched ground, which he interpreted as a positive omen, but his wife disagreed, explaining that a mare signified a man's fetch (''[[fylgja]]''), and that the red color boded bloodiness. This association of the nightmare with fetch is thought to be of late origin, an interpolation in the text dating to circa 1300, with the text exhibiting a "confounding of the words ''marr'' and ''mara''."<ref name="kelchner">{{cite book\|ref={{SfnRef\|Kelchner\|1935}}\|last=Kelchner\|first=Georgia Dunham\|title=Dreams in Old Norse Literature and their Affinities in Folklore\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|year=2013\|origyear=1935\|url=http://books.google.co.jp/books?hl=ja&lr=&id=eXMoAAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA20\|pages=20–22\|isbn=1107620228}}</ref>		According to the ''Vatnsdæla saga'', Thorkel Silver ({{lang\|is\|Þorkell Silfri}}) has a dream about riding a red horse that barely touched ground, which he interpreted as a positive omen, but his wife disagreed, explaining that a mare signified a man's fetch (''fylgja''), and that the red color boded bloodiness. This association of the nightmare with fetch is thought to be of late origin, an interpolation in the text dating to circa 1300, with the text exhibiting a "confounding of the words ''marr'' and ''mara''."<ref name="kelchner">{{cite book\|ref={{SfnRef\|Kelchner\|1935}}\|last=Kelchner\|first=Georgia Dunham\|title=Dreams in Old Norse Literature and their Affinities in Folklore\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|year=2013\|origyear=1935\|url=http://books.google.co.jp/books?hl=ja&lr=&id=eXMoAAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA20\|pages=20–22\|isbn=1107620228}}</ref>

	Another possible example is the account in the ''Eyrbyggja saga'' of the sorceress Geirrid accused of assuming the shape of a "night-rider" or "ride-by-night" (''marlíðendr'' or ''kveldriða'') and causing serious trampling bruises on Gunnlaug Thorbjornsson. The ''marlíðendr'' mentioned here has been equated to the ''mara'' by commentators.<ref>Morris, Eiríkr; Magnússon (1892), The Story of the Ere-dwellers (Eyrbyggja Saga), B. Quaritch, pp. 29–, 274, 348</ref><ref>Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni (1890), The Viking Age: The Early History, Manners, and Customs of the ancestors of the English-speaking Nations 1, Scribner's Sons, p. 433</ref><ref>Ármann Jakobsson (2009), "The Fearless Vampire Killers: A Note about the Icelandic Draugr and Demonic Contamination in Grettis Saga", Folklore, Volume 120, Issue 3: 307–316 doi:10.1080/00155870903219771</ref>		Another possible example is the account in the ''Eyrbyggja saga'' of the sorceress Geirrid accused of assuming the shape of a "night-rider" or "ride-by-night" (''marlíðendr'' or ''kveldriða'') and causing serious trampling bruises on Gunnlaug Thorbjornsson. The ''marlíðendr'' mentioned here has been equated to the ''mara'' by commentators.<ref>Morris, Eiríkr; Magnússon (1892), The Story of the Ere-dwellers (Eyrbyggja Saga), B. Quaritch, pp. 29–, 274, 348</ref><ref>Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni (1890), The Viking Age: The Early History, Manners, and Customs of the ancestors of the English-speaking Nations 1, Scribner's Sons, p. 433</ref><ref>Ármann Jakobsson (2009), "The Fearless Vampire Killers: A Note about the Icelandic Draugr and Demonic Contamination in Grettis Saga", Folklore, Volume 120, Issue 3: 307–316 doi:10.1080/00155870903219771</ref>
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	</blockquote>		</blockquote>

	Such charms are preceded by the example of the ''Münchener Nachtsegen'' of the fourteenth century. Its texts demonstrates that certainly by the Late Middle Ages, the distinction between the ''mare'', the [[Alp]], and the ''trute'' ([[drude]]) was being blurred, the mare being described at the alp's mother.<ref>Hall, Alaric (2007), Elves in Anglo-Saxon England: Matters of Belief, Health, Gender and Identity, Boydell Press, pp. 125–6, ISBN 1843832941</ref>		Such charms are preceded by the example of the ''Münchener Nachtsegen'' of the fourteenth century. Its texts demonstrates that certainly by the Late Middle Ages, the distinction between the ''mare'', the [[Alp]], and the ''trute'' (drude) was being blurred, the mare being described at the alp's mother.<ref>Hall, Alaric (2007), Elves in Anglo-Saxon England: Matters of Belief, Health, Gender and Identity, Boydell Press, pp. 125–6, ISBN 1843832941</ref>

	=== Slavic Countries ===		=== Slavic Countries ===

TeraS at 20:15, 12 September 2014

2014-09-12T20:15:10Z

Show changes

TeraS at 13:51, 4 August 2011

2011-08-04T13:51:52Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 06:51, 4 August 2011
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	''For other uses of the word [[Succubus]], see [[Succubus (disambiguation)]].''		''For other uses of the word [[Succubus]], see [[Succubus (disambiguation)]].''



	[[File:John Henry Fuseli - The Nightmare.JPG\|thumb\|300px\|''The Nightmare'', by Henry Fuseli]]		[[File:John Henry Fuseli - The Nightmare.JPG\|thumb\|300px\|''The Nightmare'', by Henry Fuseli]]

TeraS at 21:08, 11 June 2011

2011-06-11T21:08:25Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:08, 11 June 2011
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	''For other uses of the word [[Succubus]], see [[Succubus (disambiguation)]].''		''For other uses of the word [[Succubus]], see [[Succubus (disambiguation)]].''

			[[File:John Henry Fuseli - The Nightmare.JPG\|thumb\|300px\|''The Nightmare'', by Henry Fuseli]]
	A '''mara''', or a '''mare''' is a kind of malignant female wraith in Scandinavian folklore believed to cause nightmares. She also appears in Slavic folklore, but rather as a wraith type, not the specific (named) person. She appears as early as in the Norse Ynglinga saga, but the belief itself is probably even older (see below). "Mara" is the Old Norse, Swedish, Finnish and Icelandic name, "mare" is Old English, Norwegian and Danish. In Polish the word mara (female ghost or wraith) is linked to the verb "marzyć" (to wish). However, the positive meaning of dream is rather new, as in the past the word had negative connotation: "to have a nightmare" or as a noun - "the bed of a man in agony". This meaning is still present in old proverb ("idziesz na dzika, szykuj łoże, idziesz na niedźwiedzia, szykuj mary") which means: planning a boar hunt, prepare a bed; planning a bear hunt, prepare a deadman's bed. The '''mara''' gave also birth to female demon of winter Marzanna. To this day, there is a folklore ritual still played in Poland: Marzanna (mara) straw dolls are thrown into rivers at the first day of the spring. "Mareritt" is the Norwegian word for nightmare, meaning "ride of the mara".		A '''mara''', or a '''mare''' is a kind of malignant female wraith in Scandinavian folklore believed to cause nightmares. She also appears in Slavic folklore, but rather as a wraith type, not the specific (named) person. She appears as early as in the Norse Ynglinga saga, but the belief itself is probably even older (see below). "Mara" is the Old Norse, Swedish, Finnish and Icelandic name, "mare" is Old English, Norwegian and Danish. In Polish the word mara (female ghost or wraith) is linked to the verb "marzyć" (to wish). However, the positive meaning of dream is rather new, as in the past the word had negative connotation: "to have a nightmare" or as a noun - "the bed of a man in agony". This meaning is still present in old proverb ("idziesz na dzika, szykuj łoże, idziesz na niedźwiedzia, szykuj mary") which means: planning a boar hunt, prepare a bed; planning a bear hunt, prepare a deadman's bed. The '''mara''' gave also birth to female demon of winter Marzanna. To this day, there is a folklore ritual still played in Poland: Marzanna (mara) straw dolls are thrown into rivers at the first day of the spring. "Mareritt" is the Norwegian word for nightmare, meaning "ride of the mara".

TeraS at 21:07, 11 June 2011

2011-06-11T21:07:36Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:07, 11 June 2011
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	== Etymology ==		== Etymology ==
	The word "mare" comes (through Middle English ''mare'') from Old English ''mære'', ''mare'', or ''mere'', all feminine nouns. These in turn come from Common Germanic ''marōn''. ''Marōn'' is the source of Old Norse ''mara'' (from which come Icelandic, Faroese, and Swedish ''mara'', Danish ''mare'' and Norwegian ''mare/mara''), Dutch (''nacht'')''merrie'', and German ''Mahr''. The ''-mar'' in French ''cauchemar'' ("nightmare") is borrowed from the Germanic through Old French ''mare''.<ref ~~name=BJORVAND719/~~>Bjorvand and Lindeman (2007:719–720).</ref> The word can ultimately be traced back to the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European root ''*mer-'', "to rub away" or "to harm".<ref>"[http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE326.html mer-]" in Pickett et al. (2000).</ref>		The word "mare" comes (through Middle English ''mare'') from Old English ''mære'', ''mare'', or ''mere'', all feminine nouns. These in turn come from Common Germanic ''marōn''. ''Marōn'' is the source of Old Norse ''mara'' (from which come Icelandic, Faroese, and Swedish ''mara'', Danish ''mare'' and Norwegian ''mare/mara''), Dutch (''nacht'')''merrie'', and German ''Mahr''. The ''-mar'' in French ''cauchemar'' ("nightmare") is borrowed from the Germanic through Old French ''mare''.<ref>Bjorvand and Lindeman (2007:719–720).</ref> The word can ultimately be traced back to the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European root ''*mer-'', "to rub away" or "to harm".<ref>"[http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE326.html mer-]" in Pickett et al. (2000).</ref>

	In Norwegian and Danish, the words for "nightmare" are ''mareritt'' and ''mareridt'' respectively, which can be directly translated as "mare-ride". The Icelandic word ''martröð'' has the same meaning (-tröð from the verb troða, "trample", "stamp on", related to "tread") , whereas the Swedish ''mardröm'' translates as "mare-dream".		In Norwegian and Danish, the words for "nightmare" are ''mareritt'' and ''mareridt'' respectively, which can be directly translated as "mare-ride". The Icelandic word ''martröð'' has the same meaning (-tröð from the verb troða, "trample", "stamp on", related to "tread") , whereas the Swedish ''mardröm'' translates as "mare-dream".

TeraS at 21:06, 11 June 2011

2011-06-11T21:06:17Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:06, 11 June 2011
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	== Etymology ==		== Etymology ==
	The word "mare" comes (through Middle English ''mare'') from Old English ''mære'', ''mare'', or ''mere'', all feminine nouns. These in turn come from Common Germanic ''marōn''. ''Marōn'' is the source of Old Norse ''mara'' (from which come Icelandic, Faroese, and Swedish ''mara'', Danish ''mare'' and Norwegian ''mare/mara''), Dutch (''nacht'')''merrie'', and German ''Mahr''. The ''-mar'' in French ''cauchemar'' ("nightmare") is borrowed from the Germanic through Old French ''mare''.<ref name=BJORVAND719/> The word can ultimately be traced back to the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European root ''*mer-'', "to rub away" or "to harm".<ref>"[http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE326.html mer-]" in Pickett et al. (2000)~~. Retrieved on 2008-11-22~~.</ref>		The word "mare" comes (through Middle English ''mare'') from Old English ''mære'', ''mare'', or ''mere'', all feminine nouns. These in turn come from Common Germanic ''marōn''. ''Marōn'' is the source of Old Norse ''mara'' (from which come Icelandic, Faroese, and Swedish ''mara'', Danish ''mare'' and Norwegian ''mare/mara''), Dutch (''nacht'')''merrie'', and German ''Mahr''. The ''-mar'' in French ''cauchemar'' ("nightmare") is borrowed from the Germanic through Old French ''mare''.<ref name=BJORVAND719/>Bjorvand and Lindeman (2007:719–720).</ref> The word can ultimately be traced back to the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European root ''*mer-'', "to rub away" or "to harm".<ref>"[http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE326.html mer-]" in Pickett et al. (2000).</ref>

	In Norwegian and Danish, the words for "nightmare" are ''mareritt'' and ''mareridt'' respectively, which can be directly translated as "mare-ride". The Icelandic word ''martröð'' has the same meaning (-tröð from the verb troða, "trample", "stamp on", related to "tread") , whereas the Swedish ''mardröm'' translates as "mare-dream".		In Norwegian and Danish, the words for "nightmare" are ''mareritt'' and ''mareridt'' respectively, which can be directly translated as "mare-ride". The Icelandic word ''martröð'' has the same meaning (-tröð from the verb troða, "trample", "stamp on", related to "tread") , whereas the Swedish ''mardröm'' translates as "mare-dream".

TeraS at 21:05, 11 June 2011

2011-06-11T21:05:16Z

← Older revision	Revision as of 14:05, 11 June 2011
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		== Etymology ==
		The word "mare" comes (through Middle English ''mare'') from Old English ''mære'', ''mare'', or ''mere'', all feminine nouns. These in turn come from Common Germanic ''marōn''. ''Marōn'' is the source of Old Norse ''mara'' (from which come Icelandic, Faroese, and Swedish ''mara'', Danish ''mare'' and Norwegian ''mare/mara''), Dutch (''nacht'')''merrie'', and German ''Mahr''. The ''-mar'' in French ''cauchemar'' ("nightmare") is borrowed from the Germanic through Old French ''mare''.<ref name=BJORVAND719/> The word can ultimately be traced back to the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European root ''*mer-'', "to rub away" or "to harm".<ref>"[http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE326.html mer-]" in Pickett et al. (2000). Retrieved on 2008-11-22.</ref>

		In Norwegian and Danish, the words for "nightmare" are ''mareritt'' and ''mareridt'' respectively, which can be directly translated as "mare-ride". The Icelandic word ''martröð'' has the same meaning (-tröð from the verb troða, "trample", "stamp on", related to "tread") , whereas the Swedish ''mardröm'' translates as "mare-dream".

TeraS at 21:03, 11 June 2011

2011-06-11T21:03:02Z

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:03, 11 June 2011
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	A '''mara''', or a '''mare''' is a kind of malignant female wraith in Scandinavian folklore believed to cause nightmares. She also appears in Slavic folklore, but rather as a wraith type, not the specific (named) person. She appears as early as in the Norse Ynglinga saga, but the belief itself is probably even older (see below). "Mara" is the Old Norse, Swedish, Finnish and Icelandic name, "mare" is Old English, Norwegian and Danish. In Polish the word mara (female ghost or wraith) is linked to the verb "marzyć" (to wish). However, the positive meaning of dream is rather new, as in the past the word had negative connotation: "to have a nightmare" or as a noun - "the bed of a man in agony". This meaning is still present in old proverb ("idziesz na dzika, szykuj łoże, idziesz na niedźwiedzia, szykuj mary") which means: planning a boar hunt, prepare a bed; planning a bear hunt, prepare a deadman's bed. The '''mara''' gave also birth to female demon of winter Marzanna. To this day, there is a folklore ritual still played in Poland: Marzanna (mara) straw dolls are thrown into rivers at the first day of the spring. "Mareritt" is the Norwegian word for nightmare, meaning "ride of the mara".		A '''mara''', or a '''mare''' is a kind of malignant female wraith in Scandinavian folklore believed to cause nightmares. She also appears in Slavic folklore, but rather as a wraith type, not the specific (named) person. She appears as early as in the Norse Ynglinga saga, but the belief itself is probably even older (see below). "Mara" is the Old Norse, Swedish, Finnish and Icelandic name, "mare" is Old English, Norwegian and Danish. In Polish the word mara (female ghost or wraith) is linked to the verb "marzyć" (to wish). However, the positive meaning of dream is rather new, as in the past the word had negative connotation: "to have a nightmare" or as a noun - "the bed of a man in agony". This meaning is still present in old proverb ("idziesz na dzika, szykuj łoże, idziesz na niedźwiedzia, szykuj mary") which means: planning a boar hunt, prepare a bed; planning a bear hunt, prepare a deadman's bed. The '''mara''' gave also birth to female demon of winter Marzanna. To this day, there is a folklore ritual still played in Poland: Marzanna (mara) straw dolls are thrown into rivers at the first day of the spring. "Mareritt" is the Norwegian word for nightmare, meaning "ride of the mara".

	The mara was thought of as an immaterial being – capable of moving through a keyhole or the opening under a door – who seated herself at the chest of a sleeping person and "rode" him or her, thus causing [[nightmare]]s. In Norwegian/Danish, the word for nightmare is ''mareritt/mareridt'', meaning "mareride". The Icelandic word ''martröð'' has the same meaning, whereas the Swedish ''mardröm'' translates as "maredream". The weight of the mara could also result in breathing difficulties or feeling of suffocation (an experience now known as ''sleep paralysis''). This phenomenon is present in the Finnish word for nightmare, ''{{lang\|su\|painajainen}}'', which is derived from the verb ''painaa'', meaning "to press/to apply pressure". In the Finnish folklore, a ''{{lang\|su\|Painajainen}}'' was originally a malign creature that climbed on the chest of a sleeping person, paralysing or even suffocating the sleeper.

	The mara was also believed to "ride" horses, which left them exhausted and covered in sweat by the morning. She could also entangle the hair of the sleeping man or beast, resulting in "marelocks", a belief probably originating as an explanation for Polish plait – a hair disease. Even trees could be ridden by the mara, resulting in branches being entangled. The undersized, twisted pine-trees growing on coastal rocks and on wet grounds are known in Sweden as ''{{lang\|sv\|martallar}}'' (marepines).

	~~According to~~ a ~~common belief,~~ the ~~free-roaming spirit~~ of sleeping ~~women could become maras~~, ~~either out~~ of ~~wickedness~~ or as ~~a form of curse~~. In the ~~latter case~~, ~~finding out who~~ the ~~cursed person was and repeating~~ "~~you are~~ a ~~mara" three times~~ was ~~often enough to release her from this condition~~.

			==Origins==
			The mara was thought of as an immaterial being – capable of moving through a keyhole or the opening under a door – who seated herself at the chest of a sleeping person and "rode" him or her, thus causing [[nightmare]]s. In Norwegian/Danish, the word for nightmare is ''mareritt/mareridt'', meaning "mareride". The Icelandic word ''martröð'' has the same meaning, whereas the Swedish ''mardröm'' translates as "maredream". The weight of the mara could also result in breathing difficulties or feeling of suffocation (an experience now known as ''sleep paralysis''). This phenomenon is present in the Finnish word for nightmare, ''{{lang\|su\|painajainen}}'', which is derived from the verb ''painaa'', meaning "to press/to apply pressure". In the Finnish folklore, a ''{{lang\|su\|Painajainen}}'' was originally a malign creature that climbed on the chest of a sleeping person, paralysing or even suffocating the sleeper.

	The concept of the mara has very old roots in the folklore of the Germanic peoples, possibly the belief was shaped as early as in proto-Indo-European religion. According to the American Heritage Dictionary, the word can be traced back to an Indo-European root ''mer'', meaning to rub away or to harm.<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE326.html mer- The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Slavic nightmare spirit ''[[Mora (mythology)\|mora]]'' is likely to have been derived from this root as well, and possibly also the Irish deity ''Mórrígan'' and the Buddhist demon ''[[Mara (demon)\|Māra]]'' (< PIE mor-o-). The proto-Germanic name is ''marōn'' (< PIE mor-ōn-), and its Old English derivative is ''mære''. The Anglo-Saxon belief in this creature still echoes in the word ''nightmare''. In later English folklore, hags and witches took on many of the roles of the mara, producing terms such as ''hagridden'' and ''haglock''. In Germany the activities of the mara (''{{lang\|de\|mahr}}'') were shifted to the elves (nightmare in German is ''Albtraum'' or "elf-dream"). According to ''Dictionnaire de l'Académie française'', the French word ''{{lang\|fr\|cauchemar}}'' ("sleep-mare") entered the French language from a Middle Dutch ''mare''.<ref>http://atilf.atilf.fr/Dendien/scripts/generic/affiche.exe?76;s=1437207030;d=1;f=1;t=1;r=4;</ref>		The concept of the mara has very old roots in the folklore of the Germanic peoples, possibly the belief was shaped as early as in proto-Indo-European religion. According to the American Heritage Dictionary, the word can be traced back to an Indo-European root ''mer'', meaning to rub away or to harm.<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE326.html mer- The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The Slavic nightmare spirit ''[[Mora (mythology)\|mora]]'' is likely to have been derived from this root as well, and possibly also the Irish deity ''Mórrígan'' and the Buddhist demon ''[[Mara (demon)\|Māra]]'' (< PIE mor-o-). The proto-Germanic name is ''marōn'' (< PIE mor-ōn-), and its Old English derivative is ''mære''. The Anglo-Saxon belief in this creature still echoes in the word ''nightmare''. In later English folklore, hags and witches took on many of the roles of the mara, producing terms such as ''hagridden'' and ''haglock''. In Germany the activities of the mara (''{{lang\|de\|mahr}}'') were shifted to the elves (nightmare in German is ''Albtraum'' or "elf-dream"). According to ''Dictionnaire de l'Académie française'', the French word ''{{lang\|fr\|cauchemar}}'' ("sleep-mare") entered the French language from a Middle Dutch ''mare''.<ref>http://atilf.atilf.fr/Dendien/scripts/generic/affiche.exe?76;s=1437207030;d=1;f=1;t=1;r=4;</ref>
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	According to author and researcher Paul Devereux, mora included witches who took on the form of animals when their spirits went out while they were in trance. Animals such as frogs, cats, horses, hares, dogs, oxen, birds and often bees and wasps.<ref name="Haunted Land 2001, p 78"/>		According to author and researcher Paul Devereux, mora included witches who took on the form of animals when their spirits went out while they were in trance. Animals such as frogs, cats, horses, hares, dogs, oxen, birds and often bees and wasps.<ref name="Haunted Land 2001, p 78"/>

			According to a common belief, the free-roaming spirit of sleeping women could become maras, either out of wickedness or as a form of curse. In the latter case, finding out who the cursed person was and repeating "you are a mara" three times was often enough to release her from this condition.

	Like other trance practitioners, mora witches traditionally owed their abilities to being born with a caul. In their metamorphosed form they could fly through the night, walk on or hover above water and travel in a sieve. Dead mora witches were said to return as ghosts.		Like other trance practitioners, mora witches traditionally owed their abilities to being born with a caul. In their metamorphosed form they could fly through the night, walk on or hover above water and travel in a sieve. Dead mora witches were said to return as ghosts.